Am J Reprod Immunol. 2026 May;95(5):e70250. doi: 10.1111/aji.70250.
ABSTRACT
PROBLEM: Female genital mutilation/cutting (FGM/C) is harmful to physical, mental, and reproductive health, though the effect of this practice on a woman’s HIV susceptibility is poorly understood. Despite the known associations of FGM/C with short-term vaginal epithelial damage, neither genital inflammation nor the genital microbiome have been explored in women who have undergone FGM/C. In this study we compare the genital immune milieu and microbiome among female sex workers (FSWs) by FGM/C status, hypothesizing that these biological factors are dysregulated in women who have undergone FGM/C, heightening their risk of HIV acquisition.
METHOD OF STUDY: 1003 FSWs in Nairobi, Kenya, were enrolled in the Maisha Fiti study and visited a study clinic up to three times from June 2019 to March 2021. Participants self-reported any previous exposure to FGM/C as well as other relevant sociodemographic factors. Levels of proinflammatory cytokines and soluble E-cadherin (sE-cad), a biomarker of epithelial barrier disruption, were measured by multiplex immunoassay using self-collected cervicovaginal secretion samples provided by HIV-uninfected participants. Genital inflammation was defined using a composite score of inflammatory cytokines previously associated with HIV acquisition. The presence of inflammation was compared longitudinally between groups using mixed models to control for potential confounders including age, bacterial vaginosis (BV) status as defined by Nugent score, and others. Vaginal bacterial abundance, Shannon diversity, and total levels of key vaginal bacteria were measured by qPCR and compared by FGM/C status in an exploratory analysis.
RESULTS: 44 of 1003 (4%) participants had undergone Type I or II FGM/C. These participants were older (p < 0.001) and more likely to test positive for herpes simplex virus-2 (HSV-2; p = 0.04), and less likely to have completed primary education (p = 0.03). Among HIV-uninfected participants, there was no evidence that genital inflammation was associated with FGM/C status after controlling for potential confounders (aOR = 0.70; 95% CI: 0.31-1.59; p = 0.40). There was no evidence of a difference in BV prevalence (p > 0.99), total bacterial abundance (p = 0.96), or Shannon diversity (p = 0.15) by FGM/C status.
CONCLUSIONS: Type I or II FGM/C was not associated with genital inflammation or microbial dysregulation in the long-term among HIV-negative FSWs in this cohort. This may be due to the duration elapsed since FGM/C occurred or the lowered mucosal immune activation previously observed in FSWs.
PMID:42081188 | DOI:10.1111/aji.70250
