Environ Monit Assess. 2026 Feb 7;198(2):213. doi: 10.1007/s10661-026-15042-5.
ABSTRACT
Springs in the Sirmaur district of the North-Western Himalayas are vital freshwater sources; however, systematic, multi-seasonal data on their physicochemical quality, trace metal concentrations, and land use influences remain scarce. Thirty springs were assessed over 2 years (2021-2023) for physicochemical and heavy metal parameters, seasonal variations, and land use impacts using multivariate statistical methods. Water was neutral to mildly alkaline (pH 6.97-8.06) with moderate mineralization. Calcium and magnesium occasionally exceeded BIS standards, reflecting geogenic inputs from carbonate- and dolomite-rich formations. Lead exceeded permissible limits in both pre- and post-monsoon seasons (up to 0.0163 mg L⁻1), and iron exceeded limits during pre-monsoon (up to 0.3004 mg L⁻1), indicating localized anthropogenic and lithological influences. Water Quality Index (WQI) classified overall quality as “Good” (pre-monsoon 36.26; post-monsoon 37.63), with forested catchments consistently superior. A significant difference (p < 0.05) between agricultural and settlement springs during pre-monsoon indicates enhanced contaminant transport under low-flow conditions. Spearman correlation showed positive associations between pH and Ca, Zn, and Mn, reflecting mineral weathering. Principal component analysis (PCA) distinguished regional geogenic controls from site-specific anomalies shaped by land use and lithology. The study provides a comprehensive, data-driven understanding of spring water quality dynamics, offering insights for springshed management, pollution mitigation, and sustainable water resource planning in Himalayan headwaters.
PMID:41653254 | DOI:10.1007/s10661-026-15042-5
