J Environ Sci (China). 2026 May;163:566-574. doi: 10.1016/j.jes.2025.11.033. Epub 2025 Nov 18.
ABSTRACT
The transportation sector’s reliance on internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles contributes significantly to energy consumption and environmental degradation. Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) present a viable alternative by combining electric propulsion with ICE capabilities to enhance fuel efficiency and reduce emissions. This study evaluates the energy consumption and emission characteristics of PHEVs under diverse real-world driving conditions, focusing on charge-depleting (CD) and charge-sustaining (CS) modes. Using chassis dynamometer (5-cycle, WLTC under varying temperatures) and real driving emissions (RDE) tests, the study reveals that CD mode offers superior efficiency in urban driving due to regenerative braking, while CS mode performs better under high-speed or low-temperature conditions. Notably, energy consumption in CS mode was approximately 2.98 times higher than in CD mode during urban RDE tests. Cold start conditions significantly increased emissions and delayed catalyst activation by 100-150 s. Furthermore, maintaining battery state of charge (SOC) at 60 % in CS mode achieved the highest efficiency across urban and motorway scenarios. These findings suggest that adaptive integration of CD and CS modes, optimal SOC management, and mitigation of cold start effects are essential for improving PHEV efficiency and sustainability.
PMID:41887875 | DOI:10.1016/j.jes.2025.11.033
