Prev Vet Med. 2026 May 17;254:106916. doi: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2026.106916. Online ahead of print.
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION: This review evaluates the effectiveness of culling and birth control interventions for managing free-roaming dogs (FRD) and cats (FRC) worldwide across key outcome domains-population metrics, zoonotic disease indicators, shelter indicators, public metrics, animal welfare, ecological externalities, and cost-effectiveness-and identifies contextual conditions determining intervention effectiveness.
METHODS: Following PRISMA, we conducted three separate systematic searches in PubMed, Web of Science, and Scopus (up to 16 October 2025) addressing culling, birth control, and modelling studies. Empirical evidence was synthesised using descriptive, stratified analyses. Modelling studies were synthesised to identify conditions associated with effectiveness.
RESULTS: Ninety-one empirical studies were included (33 culling; 58 birth control), alongside 18 modelling studies. Birth control interventions were more frequently classified as effective than culling, with statistically significant differences in effectiveness distributions between intervention types (p = 0.045). Culling effectiveness was context-dependent and largely confined to island systems, particularly for FRC, while FRD-targeted culling was rarely effective, especially for zoonotic disease indicators and public metrics. Birth control-particularly multi-component, long-term programmes-showed higher effectiveness across domains and in open mainland settings. Temporal analyses showed a decline in both the volume and reported effectiveness of culling studies since 2010, alongside increasing and geographically broader evidence for birth control. Modelling studies identified high population coverage, sustained implementation, and control of population inflow as key conditions for effectiveness.
CONCLUSIONS: Culling has limited, context-dependent effectiveness, whereas birth control within integrated strategies more consistently achieves sustained outcomes across domains. Effectiveness depends on coverage, duration, and addressing drivers of population inflow, including abandonment and uncontrolled breeding.
PMID:42166825 | DOI:10.1016/j.prevetmed.2026.106916
