Front Artif Intell. 2026 Jul 27;9:1816796. doi: 10.3389/frai.2026.1816796. eCollection 2026.
ABSTRACT
Face recognition systems are widely used in surveillance, biometric authentication, access control, and digital identity verification; however, supervision sensitivity, evaluation stability, and performance consistency across datasets remain insufficiently understood. This study investigates the behavior of convolutional, transformer-based, and hybrid face recognition architectures under both Softmax and ArcFace supervision using five-fold subject-disjoint cross-validation on the Labeled Faces in the Wild (LFW) and FAGEv2 datasets. ResNet50, MobileNetV3, DeiT-Small, and a Hybrid multi-branch architecture integrating complementary convolutional and transformer feature representations were evaluated using Top-1 identification accuracy, Area Under the ROC Curve (AUC), Equal Error Rate (EER), computational complexity, and fold-level statistical analysis. Experimental results revealed substantial supervision sensitivity across architectures and datasets. On the LFW dataset, Hybrid-Softmax achieved the highest Top-1 identification accuracy (62.4%), while DeiT-Small-Softmax achieved the strongest verification performance with an AUC of 0.905 and EER of 0.159. On the FAGEv2 dataset, Hybrid-Softmax and DeiT-Small-Softmax achieved the highest identification accuracy (38.0%), while Hybrid-Softmax achieved the strongest verification performance with an AUC of 0.825 and EER of 0.251. Fold-level analyses demonstrated that the effect of ArcFace supervision varied across architectures and datasets, with consistent improvements observed for some convolutional architectures but not for transformer-based or hybrid models. Cross-dataset evaluation further revealed changes in model ranking and supervision behavior, indicating that comparative performance is strongly influenced by dataset characteristics and evaluation conditions. The findings demonstrate that additive angular margin supervision does not universally outperform conventional Softmax optimization and highlight the importance of multi-dataset benchmarking, fold-level evaluation, and supervision sensitivity analysis for robust and reproducible face recognition benchmarking.
PMID:42577375 | PMC:PMC13454437 | DOI:10.3389/frai.2026.1816796
